Quelltext der Seite John Daniel: Making Sense of MOOCs: Musings in a Maze of Myth, Paradox and Possibility (BD14)


'''John Daniel: Making Sense of MOOCs: Musings in a Maze of Myth, Paradox and Possibility'''


===What is a MOOC?===

Even during the week that this paper was being written the Wikipedia definition of MOOCs
evolved.
On 2012-09-16 Wikipedia defined a MOOC as ‘a course where the participants are distributed
and course materials are also dispersed across the web’, adding that ‘this is possible only if the
course is open, and works significantly better if the course is large. The course is not a gathering,
but rather a way of connecting distributed instructors and learners across a common topic or field
of discourse’ (Wikipedia, 2012a).
By 2012-09-20 the definition had become: ‘a MOOC is a type of online course aimed at largescale participation and open access via the web. MOOCs are a recent development in the area of
distance education, and a progression of the kind of open education ideals suggested by open
educational resources. Though the design of and participation in a MOOC may be similar to
college or university courses, MOOCs typically do not offer credits awarded to paying students
at schools. However, assessment of learning may be done for certification’ (Wikipedia, 2012b).
Because of emerging nature of the concept and the different interests at work, both Wikipedia
entries carried the disclaimer that: ‘this article appears to be written like an advertisement.
Please help improve it by rewriting promotional content from a neutral point of view and
removing any inappropriate external links’ (Wikipedia, 2012a,b).
We shall describe the short history of MOOCs since the term emerged in 2007, although many
courses around the world exhibited some of these characteristics much earlier.
The term MOOC originated in Canada. Dave Cormier and Bryan Alexander coined the acronym
to describe an open online course at the University of Manitoba designed by George Siemens
and Stephen Downes. The course, Connectivism and Connective Knowledge, was presented to 25
fee-paying students on campus and 2,300 other students from the general public who took the
online class free of charge (Wikipedia, 2012a).
The title itself evokes the aim of the course, which was to follow Ivan Illich’s injunction that an
educational system should ‘provide all who want to learn with access to available resources at
any time in their lives; empower all who want to share what they know to find those who want to
learn it from them; and, finally furnish all who want to present an issue to the public with the


�opportunity to make their challenge known’ (Illich, 1971). In this spirit ‘all the course content
was available through RSS feeds, and learners could participate with their choice of tools:
threaded discussions in Moodle, blog posts, Second Life and synchronous online meetings’
(Wikipedia, 2012a).
We quote Illich to emphasise that the xMOOCs attracting media attention today, which are ‘at
the intersection of Wall Street and Silicon Valley’ (Caulfield, 2012), appear to have scant
relation to those pioneering approaches. The earlier tradition of what Siemens (2012) calls
cMOOCs continues (see Cormier, 2010) but the focus of attention has moved to xMOOCs that
are far from Illich’s ideals. Surprisingly perhaps, those who coined the term MOOCs and
continue to lead much Web discussion about them draw little attention to this change. Downes
(2012) comments wistfully: ‘I was not surprised at all that once (the MOOC format) proved
successful it would be adopted by the Ivy League (who would receive credit for its ‘discovery’)
because this follows a well-established pattern in our field’. Perhaps the originators of cMOOCs
believe that with time the movement will be drawn back to some of their methods and
philosophy and indeed, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is beginning, timidly,
to enrich its xMOOCs in this way.
No doubt the delayed reaction of the first movers is partly because the new wave of xMOOCs is
so recent. Early in 2012 Stanford University offered a free, chunked course on Artificial
Intelligence online and 58,000 people signed up. One of the faculty members involved, Sebastian
Thrun, went on to found Udacity, a commercial start-up that helps other universities to offer
xMOOCs (Meyer, 2012). MIT (2011) announced MITx at the end of 2011 for a launch in spring
2012. MITx has now morphed into edX with the addition of Harvard and UC Berkeley (edX,
2012). Since then similar initiatives from other well known US universities have come thick and
fast. There seems to be a herd instinct at work as universities observe their peers joining the
xMOOCs bandwagon and jump on for fear of being left behind. At this writing Coursera,
another for-profit xMOOC start-up, already claims nearly 1.4m registrations and will offer 200
courses in late 2012 with 33 partner institutions, of which the large majority are in the US
(Lewin, 2012a; DeSantis, 2012).
Armstrong (2012) has made a useful comparison of the MITx programme and the courses that
Coursera has offered with 13 ‘top-tier’ universities in the US and abroad. After interviewing

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�some of the players and enrolling in a Coursera course himself, he considers that these two
approaches to the expansion of online learning are significantly different in purpose. MIT’s
venture is rooted in a strategy, going back 15 years, of using online learning to improve and
change its teaching on campus. The launch of MIT Open Courseware in 2001 was part of this
policy and it is significant that L. Rafael Reif, who as provost oversaw the creation of MITx, has
recently been appointed president of MIT.
Referring to the work of Christensen (1997) on innovation, Armstrong suggests that MIT
considers online learning to be a disruptive technology and is using MITx as a ‘skunkworks’ to
master it in order to learn how to educate more effectively its on-campus students.
Stanford University is using a similarly considered approach. Although Stanford’s president talks
breathlessly about a ‘digital tsunami threatening to sweep aside conventional university
education’ (Boxall, 2012), John Mitchell, the vice-provost responsible for online learning, rather
echoes the MIT approach: ‘I think everyone agrees there's something very exciting going on
here. So how do we as a university participate in that? What can we learn about teaching and
learning through experimenting with different forms of technology? So I think we're going to
treat this as an intellectual question and an academic investigation in some sense’ (Weissmann,
2012). Elsewhere he observed: ‘we really want to see what works. We’ve started out in one
direction with Coursera – which is a great company and it’s great working with them – but it’s
not clear that the current mode of producing courses is where we’re going to end up in five
years’ (Lewin, 2012a).
Armstrong observes that some Coursera institutions are marching to a different drummer from
MIT. For them, MOOCs are a sideline rather than core business. Provosts at two of the
institutions said that they were not providing any pedagogical help for faculty in the preparation
of the courses. ‘In fact’, comments Armstrong, ‘they looked confused at the question’. His
conclusion that ‘Coursera clearly was a low priority venture for both’ was backed by his
experience of taking one of the courses. He reported that ‘the pedagogy, however, did not live up
to the Coursera pledge of sound pedagogical foundations… The course is basically a typical
college lecture, chunked into roughly 15-minute segments… There is one weekly problem set
designed to measure algorithmic rather than conceptual learning. Answers to the set are either
multiple choice or a single number which is typed in… the students learn little when they get

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�their assignments back except the grade’. In summary, says Armstrong, ‘it seems pretty obvious
that no one who had any working knowledge of research in pedagogy was deeply involved in the
creation of the course’.
Coursera leaves the design of the courses up to the individual institutions within broad
guidelines. Clearly they will improve over time although, according to Young (2012), their
motivation for improvement is fear of loss of revenue rather than serving students better. He
notes, ‘college officials, for their part, seem more motivated by fear than by the promise of
riches. “Most of us are thinking that this could be a loss of revenue source if we don’t learn how
to do it well,” says Mr Rodriquez, of the University of Virginia. “These are high-quality potential
substitutes for some of what universities do”’. The president of the University of Virginia almost
lost her job because the trustees did not think she was moving into online provision rapidly
enough (DeSantis, 2012).

===Non-starts, dropouts, completers and cheats: early results===

At the time of writing institutions offering the new wave of xMOOCs are reacting to the results
of the first offerings. Both MIT and Coursera have had to defend the tremendous attrition rates in
their courses. In MIT’s course 6.002x, Circuits and Electronics, there were 155,000 registrations.
They came from 160 countries, with the US, India and the UK accounting for the majority of the
traffic and Columbia, Spain, Pakistan, Canada, Brazil, Greece and Mexico rounding out the top
ten. Of these 155,000 learners, 23,000 tried the first problem set, 9,000 passed the mid-term and
7,157 passed the course as a whole. 340 students, including a 15-year-old Mongolian, got a
perfect score on the final exam, qualified by Anant Agrawal, who heads what has now become
the edX initiative, as ‘very hard’. Commenting in MIT news (Hardesty, 2012), Agrawal noted
that while the rate of attrition may seem high, ‘If you look at the number in absolute terms, it’s as
many students as might take the course in 40 years at MIT’.
Consistent with its strategy of using its online ventures to improve teaching generally, MIT is
following up on this prototype in several ways. In response to student demand MIT left the
6.002x website up at the end of the course. A group of 6.002x students have created their own
version of the follow-up course, 6.003, Signals and Systems, using material from MIT’s
OpenCourseware site. Students also wrote their own programmes (e.g. an online text viewer for
mobile devices) to augment the MITx platform and MIT made these available through the course

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�wiki. MIT is also making easier for students to ‘customise the course content’ by extending
homework and exam deadlines. An interesting footnote was research on the course which
showed that students much preferred ‘shaky hand drawings that took shape as the professor
lectured’ to polished PowerPoint slides.
The press has given Coursera a rougher ride than MIT. Wukman (2012) reports that ‘some
classes were so rife with instances of alleged plagiarism that professors have been forced to
plead with their students to stop plagiarizing’. Part of the problem, according to one student
(Gibbs, 2012), is the peer grading process that Coursera deploys in an attempt to handle scale.
The figures that are available indicate similar patterns of dropout in the Coursera and MIT
courses. Patterson reports that only 7% of the 50,000 students who took his Coursera-UC
Berkeley course in Software Engineering passed (Meyer, 2012).

===Can xMOOCs make money?===

Is the fad for xMOOCs sustainable? Under a Freedom of Information Act request the Chronicle
of Higher Education obtained a copy of one of the agreements between Coursera and a partner
institution. Young (2012) notes that Coursera ‘isn’t yet sure how it will bring in revenue. In this
respect it is following a common approach of Silicon Valley start-ups: build fast and worry about
money later’. The build-up is indeed very fast. It is remarkable that university administrations,
normally in thrall to cautious lawyers, are signing up with the xMOOC companies so quickly.
Part of the reason is that the contract (e.g. with Coursera) is simple and flexible. Coursera claims
no intellectual property rights to the courses, believing that the institutions should control the
content completely. The universities are not bound to work exclusively with Coursera, although
Coursera’s founders are not concerned that their partners will decide to go into business on their
own or jump to another proprietary provider.
Where will the money come from? At the end of the Coursera partnership agreement a section on
Possible Company Monetization Strategies lists eight potential business models. They are:
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Certification (students pay for a badge or certificate)

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Secure assessments (students pay to have their examinations invigilated (proctored))

-

Employee recruitment (companies pay for access to student performance records)

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�-

Applicant screening (employers/universities pay for access to records to screen
applicants)

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Human tutoring or assignment marking (for which students pay)

-

Selling the MOOC platform to enterprises to use in their own training courses

-

Sponsorships (3rd party sponsors of courses)

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Tuition fees.

Of these options, certification and employee recruitment are under the most active consideration
according to Young. But the striking feature about this list is that the organisation least likely to
make money is the partner university. Already, for example, xMOOC institutions stung by the
prevalence of plagiarism are signing up with Pearson VUE, a subsidiary of the Pearson
conglomerate, to use its worldwide network of testing centres (Kolowich, 2012a). The two
options over which the universities have most control, certification and tuition fees, both present
problems. In the case of certification, one of the many paradoxes of xMOOCs is that most
participating institutions have a self-denying ordinance not to award credit for these courses –
although the decision of Colorado State University’s Global Campus and some European
institutions to award credit may well break this taboo (Lewin, 2012b).
As regards tuition fees there are huge challenges of principle and practice. Is a MOOC still
‘open’ if you have to pay for it? Quite apart from the logistical nightmare of collecting fees in the
160+ countries where learners are registering for xMOOCs, it seems certain that even a nominal
fee would reduce interest dramatically.
If and when money does come in, the company will get the vast majority of the cash flow with
the institutions getting 6-15% of the revenue and 20% of gross profits. An official from a partner
institution joked: ‘I suspect the margins that they are asking for is a result of throwing darts over
at Coursera!’ (Young, 2012).
In a blog post recalling the way that the monetization of YouTube and Facebook has worsened
user experience with those platforms, Justin (2012) suggests that while xMOOCs ‘monetization
models may look different from YouTube or Facebook… one common theme is that
monetization always impacts the user experience’.
Although the revenue streams for universities are unclear, publishers believe that MOOCs can
help them make money by reaching new readers and selling more books (Howard, 2012).
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�Paradoxically, this would appear to be particularly true of ‘open’ presses where books can be
downloaded for free. Athabasca University Press (2012), a publisher of prize-winning academic
books, has established the curious fact that ‘putting a scholar’s book on the web to be read for
free increases both sales and citation impact’. However, most university presses are not open
presses so they may forgo this potential source of revenue as well.

===Modest MOOCs that work===

Against this background we note another framework for public-private partnerships in online
learning that has developed with little fanfare but already yields revenue for the partners and
degrees for the students. This is the Academic Partnerships (AP) programme launched in 2008
by Best Associates, a merchant bank based in Dallas, Texas (Academic Partnerships, 2012a). So
far, although it has global ambitions, AP works with some 20 public universities in the US (e.g.
University of Arkansas at Jonesboro, University of Texas at Arlington, Lamar University). These
institutions may be less prestigious than those flocking to the Coursera and Udacity platforms,
but at least they have found a way of making money and achieving good degree graduation rates.
AP partners with these universities to convert their traditional degree programmes into an online
format, recruit qualified students and support enrolled students through graduation (Academic
Partnerships, 2012b). According to the AP website: ‘Several AP partner universities have already
been able to freeze tuition and give faculty raises due to the success of their online
programmes… AP attributes this success in programme growth to close collaboration with
faculty and administrative leadership and effective recruiting techniques that are designed to take
public universities’ degrees to scale. Additionally, AP’s retention strategies have resulted in
graduation rates that consistently meet or exceed the performance of the same programmes on
campus. Similarly, students have passed licensure examinations in both education and health
science programmes at rates comparable to or better than on-campus students… The online
students recruited by AP comprise as much as 30 per cent of partner universities' total enrolment’
(Academic Partnerships, 2012a).
In this arrangement the institutions set the tuition fees, of which the commercial partner takes
about 70% for providing the services of course conversion, student recruitment and support, and
technology platforms (Learning Management System, Customer Relationship Management
System and Enrolment System.) Student numbers in AP programmes are in the thousands rather

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�than the tens of thousands (e.g. around 4,000 at UT Arlington and Lamar respectively).
However, as noted, most of these students obtain degrees and professional recognition at rates at
least as good as their on-campus counterparts.

===Platforms===

At the heart of MOOCs are the platforms that enable the various operations involved in offering
a MOOC to be done effectively. Siemens (2011) has described the race to create effective
platforms in various fields. He notes (Siemens, 2012) that ‘MOOCs are really a platform’ and
that the platforms for the two types of MOOC that we described at the beginning of the paper are
substantially different because they serve different purposes. In Siemens’ words: ‘our cMOOC
model emphasises creation, creativity, autonomy and social networking learning. The Coursera
model emphasises a more traditional learning approach through video presentations and short
quizzes and testing. Put another way, cMOOCs focus on knowledge creation and generation
whereas xMOOCs focus on knowledge duplication’. He notes that in time the xMOOCs ‘may
well address the “drill and grill” instructional methods that are receiving some criticism’
(Siemens, 2012).
Partly because they are so different, and partly because they exist behind proprietary walls, we
shall make only general comments about MOOC platforms. A fundamental question is whether
proprietary MOOC platforms will gradually give way to open source solutions. This seems to be
happening in the closely related domain of Learning Management Systems (Virtual Learning
Environments) where the open source Moodle (moodle.org) platform is becoming the industry
standard rather than earlier proprietary systems such as Blackboard (Blackboard, 2012).
Developing a MOOC platform, at least for xMOOCs, would appear to be a much simpler task
than creating systems such as those required by the large open universities. When the UK Open
University (250,000 students) became the largest user of Moodle in 2007 it made a major
investment in order the incorporate the many sub-systems required for the effective operation of
this large global institution (Sclater, 2008). An xMOOC platform requires fewer sub-systems but
must, of course, be designed to handle very high volumes and inputs from all over the world.
However, whereas universities own and operate multiple Moodle installations, the administrative
components of MOOCs (especially if they begin to make extensive use of Learning Analytics
(Siemens, 2010)) are too complex for a teaching unit in a university to operate without huge

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�resources. For this reason most universities might eventually opt for cloud-hosted MOOC
services with control over data releases through contracts with for-profit service providers.
As it is wont to do when a new trend appears, Google has now jumped into this space. In
September 2012 it released Course Builder, open-source xMOOCs software as ‘an experimental
first step’ (the codes are available for modification without restriction although they will run in
the Google App eco-system exclusively). It had been tested earlier in Google’s own xMOOC,
Power Searching, which attracted 155,000 learners, of which 20,000 completed. Google is in
touch with some of the universities involved in xMOOCs, although the institutions are more
close-mouthed about this collaboration. Google research director Peter Norvig commented: ‘it’s
a confusing or an exciting time… I think schools are experimenting and they don’t quite yet
know what they want to do’ (Azevedo, 2012).
It will be interesting to watch the use of xMOOC platforms evolve. For the moment most
participating institutions are happy to let a commercial partner bear the costs of building the
platform and keeping it running. However, were universities to make xMOOCs such an
important component of their work that the effective offering of xMOOCs became mission
critical; they might be tempted to bring the platform ‘in-house’ in an open source cloud format.
edX has announced its intention to make its platform open source.

===MOOCs in perspective===

To dwell on the earlier fads and disappointments that technology has generated in education
would be pedantic. Innovators like to believe that theirs is the real revolution. But technology has
been about to transform education for a long time. In 1841 the ‘inventor of the blackboard was
ranked among the best contributors to learning and science, if not among the greatest benefactors
to mankind’. A century later, in 1940, the motion picture was hailed the most revolutionary
instrument introduced into education since the printing press. Television was the educational
revolution in 1957. In 1962 it was programmed learning and in 1967 computers. Each was
labelled the most important development since Gutenberg’s printing press.
Since 2000 there have been countless claims that Internet and communications technologies
(ICT) could revolutionise the format and delivery of education, not least because they absorb all
those previous innovations. We noted earlier, for instance, that xMOOC learners preferred

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�teachers to scrawl formulae on the modern equivalent of a blackboard rather than presenting
them on slides.
In my addresses as a KNOU Fellow (Daniel & Uvalić-Trumbić, 2012a; Daniel, 2012a,b,c) I have
argued that modern ICT, what my former Open University colleague Marc Eisenstadt named the
‘knowledge media’, are qualitatively different from previous technological aids to education.
That is because they lend themselves naturally to the manipulation of symbols (words, numbers,
formulae, images) that are the heart of education, as well as providing, through the Internet, a
wonderful vehicle for the distribution and sharing of educational material at low cost. But while
the potential of ICT to improve and extend education while cutting its cost is not in doubt, the
results so far have generally been disappointing (Daniel, 2012b, Toyama, 2011). We should bear
the reasons for these disappointments in mind in trying to ensure that MOOCs contribute to these
goals for improving education and are not just another flash in educational technology’s pan.
We would not expect the current extensive commentary on xMOOCs in the US to consider
events before the dotcom frenzy of 1999-2000, still less earlier developments outside North
America such as the many open universities around the world. It is surprising, however, that little
reference is made to the unhappy experience of some elite US schools with online learning in the
mid-2000s.
The Internet burst into the public consciousness in the dotcom frenzy at the turn of the
millennium. The dotcom frenzy alerted universities to new opportunities for opening up to
the world, but some got carried away into ill-fated ventures.
These have been well documented in Taylor Walsh’s recent book Unlocking the Gates
(Walsh, 2011), in which she records how universities such as Columbia, Chicago, the
London School of Economics, Oxford, Yale and Stanford thought they could make useful
additional income by offering non-credit courses online. In the event they and their
partners lost money before ventures like Fathom and AllLearn were ignominiously
shuttered. The Allearn website, which is still up, explains that the platform and course
catalogue were undergoing revision for a re-launch in 2006. It states: ‘AllLearn offers
over fifty online courses from Oxford, Stanford, and Yale Universities. Courses are
available to anyone — anywhere and at any time. Expert online instructors help you to

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�explore fully the readings and lectures and share in lively discussions with your
classmates’. There is also an analysis of what went wrong (University Business, 2008).
The Fathom website has been taken down. The site simply refers inquiries to the Centre for
Digital Research and Scholarship at Columbia University.
At that time some other universities were already taking a different route. From the late
1990s MIT had experimented with putting materials associated with its credit courses on
the web for free. This was announced as the MIT OpenCourseware project in 2002. Later
the same year, at a UNESCO Forum on the Impact of Open Courseware for Higher
Education in Developing Countries, the term Open Educational Resources was coined as a
generic term for such developments (Daniel, 2012d).
As a description of developments in the mid-2000s the subtitle to Walsh’s book, How and
why leading universities are opening up access to their courses, is somewhat misleading.
The Fathom and Allearn ventures only offered non-credit courses (which was a main
reason for their failure) and MIT was simply letting people look at materials supporting its
courses. Millions did and still do, but MIT explicitly did not offer interaction with its
faculty, still less the possibility of obtaining an MIT credential. There was plenty of
criticism of MIT from distance learning providers for this somewhat patronising approach.
No doubt this criticism, coupled with MIT’s long-term strategic planning for online
learning mentioned earlier, led to the current xMOOC developments through MITx and
edX.
Before leaving Walsh’s book it is worth recalling a quote in its final pages, from former
Princeton President Harold Shapiro, that is somewhat ironic now that Princeton is signing
up with Coursera. Shapiro expressed scepticism at the traditional university’s capacity to
expand seamlessly into other areas. He pointed out that in deciding where to focus
institutional resources, a university must consider what will support its public mission.
‘But you also have to ask yourself, where do we have the talent? You can’t just turn
around tomorrow and say ‘maybe we should start doing something different’ – you have
to accumulate the talent first’ (Walsh p. 257).
Myths and paradoxes

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�In his book Harmonizing Global Education: from Genghis Khan to Facebook, Baggaley
(2011) argues that the quality and pedagogy of much current online education is poor
because its practitioners have not taken the trouble to learn the lessons from research on
earlier educational technologies. He suggests that Asian countries may now do online
education better than the West because in many Asian countries online and earlier
technologies co-exist, allowing transfer of knowhow from one to the other.
Baggaley has summarised some key results of that earlier research and we shall not
attempt to repeat them here. Instead we shall try to build on the commentaries of others,
notably Bates (2012) and Touve (2012) by highlighting some of the myths and paradoxes
that surround xMOOCs. This will lead us to end on a positive note by exploring the
interesting possibilities that emerge once xMOOCs providers come down to earth and
resolve the contradictions that currently bedevil them.
Quality and completion rates
Several of the myths and paradoxes in the xMOOC universe relate to quality and
pedagogy. A first myth is that university brand is a surrogate for teaching quality. It isn’t.
The so-called elite universities that are rushing into xMOOCs gained their reputations in
research. Nothing suggests that they are particularly talented in teaching, especially
teaching online. A related paradox is that these same institutions once opposed the
accreditation of the University of Phoenix, claiming that online teaching was inherently of
low quality. Although Phoenix has engaged in dodgy business practices, it is likely that
because it operates as a teaching-learning system the quality of its instruction is
objectively better than the new wave of online xMOOCs. Certainly Phoenix’s completion
rates, while nothing to boast about, are much higher: at between 30-35% for associate and
bachelor’s degrees and 60% for master’s degrees (University of Phoenix, 2012).
Most countries around the world have quality assurance agencies for higher education. One of
the criteria quality auditors and assessors take seriously is the rate of course and degree
completion, partly to ensure value for the investment of public funds and partly to protect
students from poor practice. Improving retention and completion has been a special concern for
distance learning institutions and open universities. They take the view that students seek not

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�merely access, but access to success, which the institution should do everything to facilitate
while maintaining standards.
Against this background the current xMOOC completion rates of 10% or less would be
considered disastrous anywhere else. In the xMOOCs’ defence, however, it must be said that
these first offerings probably attracted a high proportion of the merely curious and tourists from
other institutions checking what the fuss was about. As the number of xMOOCs multiplies they
will likely draw a more purposeful clientele. It remains, however, that because xMOOCs
universities measure their institutional standing by the numbers who fail to gain admission to
their campuses, they will be cavalier about high wastage and failure rates. This has been called
the Passchendaele approach, after the World War I battle in which tens of thousands of soldiers
were thrown at the front and died fighting for a few metres of land.
Attitudes to completion rates create a sharp distinction between the xMOOCs providers and
other distance learning institutions, both public and for profit. For reasons that are a combination
of ideals of student service, consumer legislation and supervision by regulatory bodies, these
other institutions invest heavily in retention strategies. International guidelines about distance
education and much national legislation were stimulated by Jessica Mitford’s classic piece in the
Atlantic Monthly in 1970: Let us now appraise famous writers – an entertaining and instructive
read for anyone new to the field.
Certification
This brings us to the central paradox in xMOOCs that Touve (2012) explores. The fundamental
contradiction is that currently, for most xMOOC institutions, success in the course exam (called
‘very hard’ by MIT’s Agrawal (Hardesty, 2012)), does not lead to credit, but to a certificate. The
consequence, as Touve stresses, is that what decides whether or not a student can obtain a degree
is determined not by their mastery of the courses, but by the admissions process to the university.
This is an untenable nonsense. To give but one example, the UK Open University, which has no
academic admission requirements, has awarded over a million highly regarded degrees to its
students. Entry to the Open University is easy; exit with a degree is difficult.
Elite institutions, of course, usually define their quality by the numbers of applicants that they
exclude, not by the teaching that happens on campus after admission. My late Athabasca
University colleague Dan Coldeway called this the principle of ‘good little piggies in, make good
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�bacon out’. It is a venerable academic tradition but hardly seems fit for the 21st century, not least
for institutions that have suddenly discovered a mission to open up to the world. The best longterm hope for ending this dire contradiction is learning analytics, which are stealing up on higher
education in an inexorable way. Learning analytics are ‘the use of data and models to predict
student progress and performance, and the ability to act on that information’ (Siemens, 2010).
They hold out the promise that individuals will eventually be able to have a complete record of
what they have learned and mastered at the level of concepts and skills. Some MOOC
institutions claim to be using learning analytics. Perhaps they should be careful what they wish
for, because the widespread use of learning analytics would make it intellectually reprehensible
to make recognition of mastery conditional on unrelated processes.
In reality it may not matter if the xMOOC providers’ taboo on awarding credit stays in place,
because holders of MOOCs certificates can trade them for credit elsewhere. Unfortunately in the
US this is an expensive process. Kolowich (2012b), using the example of the University of
Maryland, has shown that ‘students can expect to spend a minimum of $1,300 to convert the
learning picked up in an xMOOC into three college credits. That is, of course, in addition to the
hours and effort they sink into actually taking the xMOOC’. However, outside the US, where
many xMOOC students are, there are more attractive possibilities. For over 30 years Athabasca
University has offered a Bachelor’s degree with no residency requirement (i.e. students do not
have to take any courses from Athabasca, the award can be made entirely on the basis of credit
accumulation). Athabasca is also contemplating putting together a ‘Best First Year Online’
constructed entirely from open courseware (Pannekoek, 2012).
In the wider world the new OERu, which is a consortium of 18 established and accredited
universities from five continents, has been created precisely to serve learners who are acquiring
skills and knowledge by alternative routes (Hill, 2012; OERu, 2012; WikiEducator, 2011;
Taylor, 2011). Even it the xMOOC universities lift the taboo on credit it will be years, if ever,
before they can offer a whole degree on line, so xMOOC students seeking degrees would do well
seek other paths such as those mentioned.
Finally, dare we point out that xMOOCs certificates offer juicy opportunities to degree and
accreditation mill rackets? Caveat emptor should be the motto for anyone dealing with xMOOC

16

�certificates. They may want to dust off the excellent booklet that CHEA (2009) produced on this
topic.
Pedagogy
Earlier we quoted Armstrong’s (2012) conclusion that the Coursera course he took was innocent
of any pedagogical input. Indeed, outside their schools of education, pedagogy is not a familiar
word on the xMOOC campuses. It is a myth that professors distinguished by their research
output are competent to create online courses without help. Bates has long argued that expecting
individual faculty to develop online courses alongside their classroom offerings, which he calls
the ‘Lone Ranger’ approach, is unlikely to produce courses of quality (Bates and Sangra, 2011).
Good distance teaching calls for teams that support the academics with a range of skills.
With such support MOOCs provide a great opportunity to develop new pedagogy. In a world of
abundant content, courses can draw from a pool of open educational resources (OER) and
provide their students with better and more varied teaching than individual instructors could
develop by themselves. The University of Michigan (2012) (which made history by using OER
from Africa in its medical school) uses OER extensively in its Coursera course Internet History,
Technology and Security. UC Berkeley (2012) draws extensively on OER in its course on
Quantum Computing.
Knox et al. (2012), a team from the University of Edinburgh, which is one of Coursera’s few
non-US partners, gives an interesting account of getting to grips with the Coursera platform.
Their course sounds to be more cMOOC in approach, although they consider cMOOCs remain
on the radical fringe of higher education. They qualify the Coursera platform as ‘conservative in
terms of online pedagogical practice’ but, like MIT, they see xMOOCs as an experimental
venture and want to ‘participate in an emerging pedagogical mode that is significantly undertheorised’. They conclude that xMOOCs are not simply ‘ed-tech du jour’ but worth serious
engagement.
This is, however, a work in progress. Bates (2012) addresses the myth that xMOOCs are a new
pedagogy. In fact, he notes, so far the teaching methods ‘are based on a very old and out-dated
behaviourist pedagogy, relying primarily on information transmission, computer-marked
assignments and peer assessment’. He goes on to remind the xMOOCs movement that it did not

17

�invent online learning and that the useful techniques that it is discovering – and likes to claim it
has invented – are already well known in distance learning and in some cases go back 40 years.
Another myth is that computers personalise learning. Bates (2012) again: ‘No, they don’t. They
allow students alternative routes through material and they allow automated feedback but they do
not provide a sense of being treated as an individual. This can be done in online learning, but it
needs online intervention and presence in the form of discussion, encouragement, and an
understanding of an individual student’s needs’. It is here that we find the greatest difference
between the xMOOCs and the earlier cMOOCs, which have a strong focus on online discussion.
In completing his debunking of xMOOCs myths, Bates (2012) points out that the primitive use
of ‘big data’ referred to by Koller (2012) is not learning analytics but simply a way of catching
errors that should never have found their way into the course in the first place.
MOOCs: for what purpose?
The final group of myths and paradoxes are related to the reasons for offering xMOOCs. The
basic paradox is between the laudable desire, in the spirit of the open educational resources
(OER) movement (UNESCO, 2012) to make knowledge the common property of humankind,
and to find a business model that generates money for doing it. The business case for OER is
developing nicely and OER will transform the availability of school textbooks (Butcher &
Hoosen, 2012). However, the search is still on for reliable ways of making money out of
xMOOCs, especially for the universities involved. It is unfortunate that Koller (2012) justifies
xMOOCs in a particularly inept way by claiming that they are the answer to increasing access to
higher education in developing countries.
Already, at the 2009 UNESCO World Conference on Higher Education, the president of the
300,000-student University of South Africa (UNISA) labelled OER a form of intellectual neocolonialism (Daniel & Uvalić-Trumbić, 2012b) – although UNISA has now become an
important player in the OER movement and the OERu. However, as Bates (2012) comments
acerbically: ‘these elite universities continue to treat xMOOCs as a philanthropic form of
continuing education, and until these institutions are willing to award credit and degrees for this
type of programme, we have to believe that they think this is a second class form of education
suitable only for the unwashed masses’. It is a myth to think that providing not-for-credit open
online learning from the USA will address the challenges of expanding higher education in the
18

�developing world. Bates adds: ‘please, is it too much to ask for a little humility? (Probably, from
so-called elite institutions)’!

===Possibilities===

MOOCs, both cMOOCs and xMOOCs are a fascinating development. This essay has taken a
critical stance because the discourse about MOOCs is overloaded with hype and myth while the
reality is shot through with paradoxes and contradictions. However, an important process is
underway that will chart new paths for the universities involved and for higher education
generally.
This development may fall apart. We noted some earlier Internet ventures of elite universities
that started with fanfare but were wound up shamefacedly only six years ago. This time,
however, the scale of the involvement is such that something will survive, even if some who can
well afford it lose money on the way. We envisage that MOOCs will have an important impact in
two ways: improving teaching and encouraging institutions to develop distinctive missions.
But first, we agree with Bates (2012) that what MOOCs will not do is address the challenge of
expanding higher education in the developing world. It may encourage universities there, both
public and private, to develop online learning more deliberately, and OER from MOOC courses
may find their way, alongside OER from other sources, into the teaching of local institutions. We
have long argued that higher education must find ways to address the needs of those at the
bottom of the pyramid (Prahalad, 2004) but institutions in those countries will eventually do that
using technology and it is unlikely that they will make fortunes.
We also agree with Bates that current xMOOCs pedagogy is pretty old hat but this will now
change fast. Even if Coursera gave its partner universities great freedom in course formats in
order to sugar the pill of signing the contract, this will quickly produce a great diversity of
approaches and much healthy experimentation. By the end of 2012 various actors from the media
through student groups to educational research units will be publishing assessments of xMOOC
courses. These will quickly be consolidated into league tables that rank the courses – and the
participating universities – by the quality of their offerings as perceived by both learners and
educational professionals (Uvalić-Trumbić & Daniel, 2011).

19

�This will not please the participating universities. Elite universities in the UK thoroughly disliked
the state-approved teaching quality assessment system that operated there between the 1995 and
2004 (Laughton, 2003). Eventually their presidents successfully petitioned the authorities to
close it down. My own conclusion was that behind the fog of methodological arguments about
the difficulty of assessing teaching quality, the real problem was that some elite universities did
poorly and some lesser-known institutions did well. By the time results of teaching quality
assessments by discipline had accumulated over ten years a small former teachers’ college
ranked in the top ten (out of ~100) and the Open University was in 5th place, one above Oxford.
The difference with the xMOOCs assessments and rankings is that no one will be able to abolish
them by appealing to authority. Institutions that rate poorly will either have to quit playing
xMOOCs or raise their game.
This, in turn, will put a focus on teaching and pedagogy to which these institutions are
unaccustomed, which will be healthy. At the same time academics all around the world will
make judgements about the intellectual quality and rigour of the institutions that have exposed
themselves in this way. Other combinations of institutions and commercial partners will join the
fray and a new pecking order will emerge.
In contrast to the copycat rush to jump on the xMOOCs bandwagon, this may encourage more
institutional leaders to share Harold Shapiro’s scepticism about the ability of traditional
universities to expand seamlessly into new areas. With luck the dream of the great American
educator Ernie Boyer (1990) may even come true. In 1990, in Scholarship Reconsidered:
Priorities of the Professoriate, he wrote: ‘We need a climate in which colleges and universities
are less imitative, taking pride in their uniqueness. It’s time to end the suffocating practice in
which colleges and universities measure themselves far too frequently by external status rather
than by values determined by their own distinctive mission’.
The broader purpose of Boyer’s book was to encourage the emergence of a scholarship of
teaching alongside the scholarships of discovery (research), integration (multidisciplinary) and
application (development). Placing their xMOOCs in the public domain for a worldwide
audience will oblige institutions to do more than pay lip service to importance of teaching and
put it at the core their missions. This is the real revolution of MOOCs.

20

�MOOCs may also have the long-term effect of helping to cut the outsize costs of higher
education, which in the US have increased by 360% above inflation since 1986 (Archibald &
Feldman, 2010). But that is another story!

...


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